"Hype is an interesting thing. It‘s rightfully often spurred as misleading bullshit or ignorant boosterism but it also has its uses."

"In short: when it comes to creating a new technology you need to sell a vision to attract the resources you need (people, investment, etc.). Hype can also act as glue."

"At its best, it can create a shared vision pulling the actors in the same direction and thus creating a self-fulfilling prophecy."

"Hype thus moves on a scale from overpromising to overselling, and even irrational exuberance."

"LEVEL 1: MARKETING CLAIMS"

"This is your standard marketing speak. They‘re focused on what existing technology can do for you almost immediately."

"LEVEL 2: EXAGGERATED CLAIMS"

"Here the effects and impact of an existing technology are greatly exaggerated and oversold but still informed by its real capabilities. The focus lies on the returns to come by investing now."

"LEVEL 3: UTOPIAN FUTURES"

"The technology is the key to a utopian future or the avoidance of a dystopic one. Claims are solely focussed on the “potential” of the technology, less its benefits in the present."

"Thus boosters of the technology will emphasize the future potential of its present capabilities to attract further investment and political support."

"LEVEL 4: MAGICAL THINKING"

"The technology has left grounded reality and takes on magical properties. The problems it is expected to solve simply by existing are growing in number and scale while criticism gets ignored as minor hurdles, to be overcome soon."

"A particularly good example here might be the blockchain industry, which has been overselling the capabilities of the technology for years — pitching it as a solution to every imaginable societal problem and challenge."

"LEVEL 5: OTHERING"

"The technology has become a group identity for its boosters. Claims are exclusively utopian, and critics are painted as defenders of the old, to be left behind."

"This is the most aggressive and annoying form of hype. Notably, the time of arrival is less important at this level, simply that the technology will arrive at some point in the future."